History & Geography

Eritrea: Land of the Can-Do People

Eritrea occupies a land area in northeastern Africa, bounded by Sudan on the west and north, Ethiopia on the south, Djibouti on the southeast, and the Red Sea on the east. With a land area of 125,000 km², it might look like a small country. Yet it is much larger than 20 other African nations and 100 countries worldwide.

With a 1,155 km stretch, Eritrea prides itself on having the longest aggregate coastline among the Red Sea littoral states. So, it goes without saying that the Red Sea's impact on the history and development of this land has been all-important.

Since the dawn of history, Eritrea has been known to the outside world. The area approximating present-day Eritrea was known to the ancients as the Land of Punt (Land of the Gods). In the Middle Ages, this same landmass was known as Medri Bahri—Land of the Sea. It was not a mere coincidence that its name comes from the ancient Greek word for the Red Sea, "Marine Erythrium."

Eritrea's geography is incredibly diverse, with landscapes ranging from coastal plains along the Red Sea to rugged mountains and expansive plateaus inland. The country can be divided into several geographical regions:

The Coastal Plains: Along the Red Sea, Eritrea enjoys a coastline that stretches for 1,155 km, the longest of any nation along the Red Sea's littoral states. This coastline is dotted with small islands, such as those in the Dahlak Archipelago, which are important both historically and environmentally. The coastlines are characterized by arid desert-like conditions, with a mix of sandy beaches and rocky cliffs.

The Eastern Escarpment: Rising from the coastal plains is the eastern escarpment, a dramatic series of cliffs and steep valleys that ascend towards the highlands. This transition zone experiences more temperate conditions than the coast, with cooler temperatures and more vegetation.

The Central Highlands: Dominating the interior, Eritrea’s central highlands are home to its capital, Asmara, which sits at an altitude of about 2,300 meters (7,500 feet) above sea level. These highlands are the most densely populated region of the country, offering fertile soil for agriculture and a cooler, more temperate climate compared to the rest of the country. The highlands are also notable for their historical significance, with ancient civilizations and cultural centers established here over millennia.

The Western Lowlands: Towards the west, the terrain flattens into the western lowlands, which stretch toward Sudan. This region is part of the Sahel and features vast semi-arid plains. The western lowlands are sparsely populated and experience extreme temperatures during the day but cool off significantly at night.

The Danakil Depression (Southern Coastal Plains): In the southeast, Eritrea borders the harsh Danakil Depression, one of the hottest places on Earth, where temperatures frequently exceed 50°C (122°F). This desert landscape is barren, with volcanic activity and salt flats dominating the region, extending into neighboring Djibouti and Ethiopia. This region’s hostile conditions have kept human settlement to a minimum but have also made it a geologically significant area.

Eritrea's location is not only important due to its proximity to neighboring countries but also because it lies directly across the Red Sea from the Arabian Peninsula. This places Eritrea at the intersection of major geopolitical interests, connecting Africa, the Middle East, and Europe.

Eritrea’s coastline directly faces Saudi Arabia and Yemen, and it controls the western shore of the Bab-el-Mandeb strait—the narrow passage that separates the Red Sea from the Gulf of Aden. This strait is a critical maritime choke point, with a significant portion of the world's oil shipments passing through it on their way to Europe, the United States, and Asia. Any disruption in Eritrean waters can, therefore, have global economic and political ramifications.

For thousands of years, the Red Sea has played a central role in Eritrea's history and development. Its waters served as a highway for trade and cultural exchange between Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, and even as far as South Asia and Europe.

Because of its strategic location, Eritrea has historically been coveted by foreign powers, from the ancient Egyptians and Romans to the Ottomans, Italians, and British. Each saw Eritrea as a gateway to controlling not just the Red Sea but also the broader maritime routes leading to the Mediterranean Sea, the Indian Ocean, and beyond.

Eritrea, a littoral country poised at the crossroads of three continents, has always been envied by various foreign powers. Hence, it has been continuously colonized for about 500 years, beginning with the Turks in 1517. The Ottoman Empire sought to control the Red Sea coast for its strategic position, and their control lasted until the 19th century.

In the mid-1800s, Egypt—under the Khedivate—followed the Turks and occupied the coastal regions of Eritrea. The Egyptians established key ports like Massawa and sought to expand their influence over the region. Eritrea became even more significant with the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, heightening the interest of European powers, particularly Italy.

Italy formally colonized Eritrea in 1890, marking the beginning of a more structured and long-term colonial period. As one of Italy's first colonies, Eritrea played a crucial role in its imperial ambitions. The Italian regime invested in infrastructure introduced new agricultural methods, and built cities like Asmara, leaving a lasting cultural and architectural imprint. However, the benefits of these developments were primarily designed to serve colonial interests, often at the expense of local communities.

Italian rule lasted until World War II, when the British defeated Italian forces in East Africa in 1941. Eritrea was placed under British administration from 1941 to 1952, but instead of granting the country independence, the British saw it as a potential bargaining chip in post-war negotiations.

The strategic location of Eritrea—facing the oil-rich Arabian Peninsula and straddling one of the world’s busiest shipping lanes—continued to attract foreign interest. In 1952, against the wishes of the Eritrean people, the United Nations decided to federate Eritrea with Ethiopia, marking the start of the fifth colonial occupation.

Under Emperor Haile Selassie, Ethiopia gradually eroded Eritrea's autonomy and formally annexed the territory in 1962, sparking a decades-long armed struggle for independence. Eritreans fought against two successive Ethiopian regimes, supported by international powers, in what one American journalist noted as "the longest struggle against all odds."

Eritreans finally routed Ethiopian occupation forces in May 1991. In April 1993, after 30 years of armed resistance, Eritreans went to the polls and voted overwhelmingly for independence. Hence, Eritrea has declared an independent and sovereign state, closing the last but bloody chapter of colonial history.